Mary Wollstonecraft (27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) is one of the most consequential figures in the history of modern feminism. A writer, philosopher, and tireless advocate for education and equal rights, Wollstonecraft challenged the assumptions of her time and laid groundwork that would echo across centuries.
Best known for her 1792 treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, she argued that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear so because they lack access to the same education and opportunities. This biography explores her early life, intellectual development, major works, relationships, controversies, and the continuing relevance of her ideas.
Early life and family background
Mary Wollstonecraft was born on 27 April 1759 in London into a large, struggling family. Her childhood was marred by financial instability and an abusive father, circumstances that forced Mary to mature quickly and to value independence. Like many women of her era, she had limited formal schooling; instead, she educated herself voraciously through reading and observation. These early hardships sharpened her sense of justice and gave her an enduring belief that social institutions could—and should—be reformed to remove needless suffering.
Education, self-formation, and early career
Wollstonecraft never enjoyed a formal university education, but she developed a rigorous, autodidactic approach to learning. In her twenties she worked as a governess, teacher, and in small businesses—experiences that exposed her to the constrained options available to respectable women. By the 1780s she was writing reviews, essays, and fiction. Early publications and her work as a translator brought her into contact with prominent figures in London’s literary and intellectual circles, creating a platform for her later, more radical arguments.
Travel, French Revolution, and political awakening
The turbulence of the 1789 French Revolution had a profound effect on Wollstonecraft. She traveled to Paris in 1792 and witnessed firsthand both the promise and the peril of revolutionary politics. Her experience in Europe sharpened her critique of entrenched privilege and deepened her conviction that rights and reason should be the foundation of political life. The Revolution also prompted her to explore how revolutionary rhetoric often excluded or ignored women—and that exclusion became a central target of her writing.
Major works: A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
Wollstonecraft’s literary reputation rests chiefly on two major pamphlets. Her A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) responded to conservative attacks on the Revolution and established her as an energetic political voice. Two years later she published her most famous work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), which argued that the presumed inferiority of women was a result of poor education and social conditioning rather than nature. She insisted that women should have access to the same rational education as men, enabling them to be independent citizens, mothers, and moral agents. Her argument combined Enlightenment reasoning with a vivid critique of social practices that confined women to ornamental roles.
Personal life: relationships, motherhood, and controversy
Wollstonecraft’s personal life was unconventional for her time and often drew public censure. She had a relationship with the writer Gilbert Imlay, which produced a daughter, Fanny Imlay. Later, after a complicated series of events, she married the philosopher William Godwin in March 1797. Their union resulted in the birth of a second daughter, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin—who would later become Mary Shelley, author of Frankenstein. Tragically, Mary Wollstonecraft died on 10 September 1797, shortly after childbirth, from what was likely puerperal fever.
After her death, William Godwin published a candid memoir which revealed intimate details of Wollstonecraft’s life—affairs, struggles, and personal suffering. Intended as an honest tribute, the memoir instead shocked contemporary readers and tarnished her reputation for decades. Ironically, this candid biography helped erase some of her intellectual contributions from the public imagination for a time, even while preserving crucial biographical detail for posterity.
Philosophical themes and arguments
Wollstonecraft’s philosophy is rooted in Enlightenment principles: reason, natural rights, and the perfectibility of human beings through education and moral cultivation. However, she applied these principles in ways that were unusual for her time: arguing that women, as rational beings, deserved rights and opportunities equal to men. She insisted on the moral and civic importance of women’s education—not merely to make women pleasing companions but to make them independent contributors to society and to the moral upbringing of children. Her thought blends feminist concern, republican notions of citizenship, and a critique of luxury, idleness, and the superficiality of a status-driven society.
Reception, criticism, and eventual rehabilitation
During her lifetime Wollstonecraft was both admired and vilified. Conservative critics attacked her for challenging social hierarchies; many readers were unsettled by her frankness about sexuality and personal life. After Godwin’s memoir, the scandalized public often dismissed her as morally suspect, which hindered immediate recognition of her ideas. Nonetheless, feminist thinkers in the 19th and 20th centuries—particularly during the suffrage movement and the second-wave feminism of the 1960s and 1970s—rediscovered Wollstonecraft’s writings. Today she is widely regarded as a foundational figure in feminist theory and a key voice in Enlightenment thought.
Legacy and why Mary Wollstonecraft matters today
Wollstonecraft’s arguments about education, equality, and the development of reason remain strikingly relevant. Modern debates about access to quality education, gendered labor divisions, and the cultural expectations placed on women echo issues she raised more than two centuries ago. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman continues to be read in literature, philosophy, gender studies, and history courses worldwide. Her life story—brave, flawed, and tenacious—also humanizes a form of political courage: the willingness to stand publicly for controversial ideas despite social risk.
FAQs
When was Mary Wollstonecraft born and when did she die?
Mary Wollstonecraft was born on 27 April 1759 and died on 10 September 1797.
What is A Vindication of the Rights of Woman about?
Published in 1792, it argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but are made so by unequal educational opportunities; Wollstonecraft calls for rational education and social reform.
Did Mary Wollstonecraft have children?
Yes. She had Fanny Imlay with Gilbert Imlay, and Mary (the future Mary Shelley) with William Godwin.
How did people react to Wollstonecraft in her own time?
Reactions were mixed. Radical readers admired her; conservatives attacked her. Her reputation suffered after a candid memoir revealed private details of her life.
Why is she considered a founder of modern feminism?
She applied Enlightenment principles of reason and natural rights to women’s situation, arguing for equal education and civic respect—positions that anticipated later feminist movements.
Are Wollstonecraft’s writings still relevant today?
Yes. Her insights into education, autonomy, and the social construction of gender continue to inform debates about gender equality and civic life.
Conclusion
Mary Wollstonecraft was a pioneering thinker who transformed personal conviction into public argument. Her life combined intellectual daring with an often-troubled personal path, but the core of her work—a demand for reason, education, and equality—has endured. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman remains a powerful call to recognize the humanity and potential of half the population. Remembering Wollstonecraft today is not simply an act of historical recovery; it’s a reminder that the fight for equality has deep roots and that ideas—expressed bravely—can change the world.